Action Report 2 Example

Activity Report 2 Example Activity Report 2 †Article Example Activity Report 2 The enormous issue, as indicated by Stiglitz concerns whether total national output (GDP) offers an unrivaled proportion of expectations for everyday comforts. In various cases, GDP measurements seem to recommend that the money related framework is improving contrasted with most residents own musings (Stiglitz 1). What's more, the focus on GDP prompts clashes: pioneers (political) are encouraged to augment it, yet residents, then again, additionally necessitate that consideration be given to improving security, diminishing water, air, just as commotion contamination, and the preferences †all of which may diminish GDP development. Similar issues in making examinations at the appointed time identified with correlations across countries (Stiglitz 1). The US utilizes more cash on medicinal services thought about some other countries yet gets a lot less fortunate outcomes. Some portion of the uniqueness between GDP per capita in Europe and the US may subsequently be because of the manner in which individuals measure things.Another huge change in many nations is an ascent in imbalance (Stiglitz 1). This implies there is a rising divergence between the middle pay (that of the ordinary worker, whose pay lies falls in the salary dispersion table) and normal pay. On the off chance that a couple of individuals working in the bank get more extravagant, normal or mean pay can increment, even as most peoples’ wages are diminishing (Stiglitz 1). Thusly, GDP per capita measurements probably won't reverberation what is happening to most residents. Any appropriate proportion of how well nations are performing should consider manageability, too (Stiglitz 1). Similarly as an organization requires estimating the decrease of its capital, so does national records require mirroring the drop of common assets, just as the debasement of the environment.Work CitedStiglitz, Joseph. The incomparable GDP cheat. N.p, 2009. Web.

Successful Fashion Marketing Strategy Essay Example For Students

Fruitful Fashion Marketing Strategy Essay At the point when I originally read that the subject of this innovative task was to expound on an effective design advertising effort just one name rung a bell: Marc Jacobs. How would you even start to place his heritage into a one-page paper? Marc Jacobs is genuinely a design symbol and is venerated by anybody with half of a mind. His capacity to make delicate female botanical into something restless and new has consistently been unique. He has more than once changed himself and his image every year into something else. We will compose a custom paper on Successful Fashion Marketing Strategy explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now From his wacky sweaters in his initial days at Parsons, to his astounding work at Louis Button, Marc Jacobs has done everything. His own words depict him best: a little preppie, somewhat grungy, a little couture. He covers each sort of man and lady. His image has developed with its customers base like no other brand available. As a lady I can shop his assortments regardless of if Im searching for an out of control tee-shirt or a traditionally wonderful outfit. At an early stage he worked for Perry Ellis with his grunge clothing. The world followed his lead and grunge turned into an overall sensation. Marc Jacobs shows are aimless ND untidy, yet marvelous and wonderful all simultaneously. He knows the basic polish of tossing an outfit together that looks half-runway, half-second hand store. His advertisements are grumpy, and attract you altogether. I can't consider one item that he has contacted that hasnt transformed into gold. His efforts into scents and cosmetics have just hardened him significantly more. He inhaled life once more into Louis Button and made them what they are today. Marc Jacobs will keep on being the most moving and persuasive individual in my life. His realm knows no closure.

Government Wrong on Tuition Fees

Government Wrong on Tuition Fees The OE Blog Influential voices from a number of sectors have joined together this week to strongly dispute the government’s calculations for its new tuition fees scheme. As more and more universities come forward to declare their intention to charge the top level of £9000 tuition fees, protesters, independent analysts and members of the education sector alike have voiced their concern that the government’s figures may be wildly optimistic. When they announced plans to introduce fees of £6000 to £9000 per academic year for university degrees, the government were adamant that the top band of fees would only be charged “in exceptional circumstances”, with Universities Minister David Willetts claiming that the average level of fees would balance out at £7500. Consequently the government’s calculations for its university budget have been based on an assumption of that average level of fees, a position Willetts refuses to retract despite the vast majority of universities so far announcing that they will charge the upper limit of £9000. The problem is that the scheme for graduate repayments means that it will be the government itself that picks up the bill for fees in the first instance, with the vastly higher figures meaning that some 70% of graduates will never actually completely manage to pay back their entire loan. This in turn means that the burden of paying for higher fees will fall back on the government and the tax payer, with severe implications if the total level of fees charged is in excess of the assumed £7500 used for the government’s budget calculations. Professor Michael Brown, vice-chancellor of Liverpool John Moores University, explained this week (as he announced fees of £9000) that his calculations showed there was simply no other option for the institution to consider. He revealed that charging fees of £6000 would result in a £26 million deficit for the university, and suggested that any university charging these levels would either quickly become bankrupt or would have to offer vastly lower standards of education provision. This confirms what many other universities have already claimed â€" Oxford University explained that it would have to charge fees of £8000 simply to “stand still” financially (in other words to recoup from fees the funding lost through withdrawn government subsidies) but that the extra £1000 fees were then necessary to fulfil the government’s required extra access provisions for a high-charging institution. Though Willetts has refused to budge on his assertion of a £7500 fees average, the clear indication is that this will fall considerably short of the mark, prompting ministers to begin considering still greater cuts to the education budget in an attempt to balance the extra fees funding that is likely to be required of the government. Willetts himself has threatened further cuts to university teaching budgets if too many institutions charge higher fees, which would be a disastrous blow to a sector already struggling with enormous financial upheaval and strain. Another option being explored by the government is a forced reduction in university places, which would lower the overall bill of student fees, but this would cause considerable protest given the premise of the whole tuition fees scheme in the first place was to widen the availability of higher education provision! Shadow Universities Minister Gareth Thomas has calculated that if the average level of tuition fees even reaches £8000, the government will have a deficit of £430 million to recoup in further cuts to education spending. Should this be achieved by cutting student places, he revealed that a total of 47,000 would have to be culled; the equivalent of 5% of current university places. Willetts seems to have pinned his last hopes on a plethora of further education colleges, which are, he claims, “itching to come in at significantly below these headline top prices”, and ministers even seem to be considering authorising other similar higher education providers where students study for courses like the BTEC to bestow degrees. But experts warn that choosing this solution to the problem would quickly result in a return to the old university: polytechnic divide between better education affordable only to the rich and second class degrees for the poor. So whilst ministers privately admit they have miscalculated, and Willetts stubbornly refuses to accept reality, it seems increasingly likely the eventual outcome will involve either further deep cuts to university teaching budgets, vastly reduced university places or a return to a two-tier, class driven higher education system. None are very appealing prospects.

Schizophrenia And The Middle Of Creativity And...

The out-of-date issue of genius and madness has incited long standing open and clinical hobby among researchers. In spite of the fact that amiableness has different parts than creativity (e.g., insight) and is established in a social setting, it is hard to envision an uncreative genius. Creativity comprising of both oddities and effect is subsequently key for agreeableness (Cropley, 2010). The thought of a relationship in the middle of creativity and mental sick well-being has mostly been maintained by infrequent tales or life stories of incredible craftsmen who battled with discouragement or liquor ill-use. Past studies essentially concentrating on schizophrenia and bipolar disorder have given some experimental proof of a relationship in the middle of creativity and psychopathology. We as of late have found that patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder and their non-analyzed relatives are overrepresented in innovative occupations (i.e., logical and imaginative occupations) contrasted with controls (Kyaga et al., 2011). This affiliation was not found in unipolar sadness. Albeit couple of studies has tended to differentiate psychopathology than schizophrenia and bipolar disorder with respect to inventiveness, there is some backing for an affiliation. It has been researched that 294 craftsmen and scientists born in German nations between 1650 and 1900 (Baer, 2012) and discovered a reasonable increment of minor psychiatric aggravations among specialists, though bipolarShow MoreRelatedPYC2602 NOTES2972 Words   |  12 PagesDevelopment †¢ Growth of body brain †¢ Development of sensory capacity motor skills †¢ Health †¢ Cognitive Development †¢ Change stability in mental abilities eg learning, memory, language, thinking, moral reasoning, creativity. †¢ Psychosocial Development †¢ Change stability in personality, emotions social relationships. All these influence each other INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT MATURATION †¢ Heredity †¢ Inborn traits inherited fromRead MoreAbnormal Psychology. Classification and Assessment of Abnormal Behavior20707 Words   |  83 Pagesclassification of some types of mental health problems generally correspond to diagnostic categories we use today. His description of melancholia, for example, is similar to our current conception of depression. 69 70 Chapter 3 During the Middle Ages some â€Å"authorities† classified abnormal behaviors into two groups, those that resulted from demonic possession and those due to natural causes. The 19th-century German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin was the first modern theorist to develop a comprehensiveRead MoreOcd - Symptoms, Causes, Treatment131367 Words   |  526 Pagesof depression and anxiety disorders. One of our most recent projects was the development of a self-report OCD screening measure called the Clark–Beck Obsessive–Compulsive Inventory (Clark Beck, 2002). Tim Beck’s insights into the nature of psychopathology and its treatment have been inspiring and have challenged me to consider new avenues of inquiry and treatment innovation. The cognitive-behavioral perspective taken in this book is a product of my early behavioral training and of the mentoring

The Necessary Separation of Church and State in America Essay

The Necessary Separation of Church and State in America On January 1, 1802, Thomas Jefferson wrote a letter to the Committee of the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut in which he stated: â€Å"Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should `make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, thus building a wall of separation between Church State.† (Jefferson,1802, Letter to Danbury†¦show more content†¦When the original 13 colonies were established in what came to be the United States of America, the goal of the British government was to expand on its resources for trade materials and manufactured goods. Because the colonies were young and not established firmly, there were labor shortages and many of the first colonists died of starvation. In an effort to remedy the shortage, the British government sent indentured servants to work in the colonies until their debts had been repaid. Among the indentured servants and military members sent to the colonies by the government, were a large number of citizens who were seeking freedom from persecution due to differing religious and political beliefs. By the time Thomas Jefferson wrote the Danbury Letter, the country had begun growing in a direction that differed from their British history. Thomas Jefferson’s intent in establishing the wall of separation between church and state was not to eliminate religion from the new society, but to protect the integrity and purity of religion as practiced by its citizens. This protection offered by the separation of church and state has provided a foundation of strength and opportunity gained through understanding and learningShow MoreRelated A Guard on Religious Freedom Essay765 Words   |  4 PagesIn the eyes of our founding fathers, few things seemed as important as the separation of church and state. The first amendment grants all Americans the freedom to subscribe to any religion they wish and promises that the government will not promote any religion above any other. Although the separation of church and state and the freedom of religion are firmly and concretely secured in the Constitution of the United States, events in the recent past bring to question whether this ideal is under threatRead MoreEssay on The Sepa ration of Church and State1043 Words   |  5 PagesThe Separation of Church and State America wastes a lot of time trying to create a democracy completely absent of the moral expectations that our ancestors have put into place. 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An article entitled, â€Å"Standing up for Church-StateRead More Keep Church and State Separated Essay1667 Words   |  7 PagesKeep Church and State Separated missing works cited America is constantly evolving and redefining itself. Those who oppose a separation between church and state claim that because this country was founded on religious principles, our government should continue to base its laws on a Judeo-Christian God. An article entitled, â€Å"Standing up for Church-State Separation in Difficult Times,† states that, â€Å"Religious Right groups are crowing and insisting that they have some sortRead MoreEssay on The Struggle Between Two Sides: Church and State1383 Words   |  6 PagesThe separation of the state and church refers to the distinct distance in the relationship that exists between the national state and the organized church. 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In most of the nations that practice such separation, there exists distinct rulesRead More Separation of Church and State is Necessary for Freedom of Choice855 Words   |  4 PagesSeparation of Church and State is Necessary for Freedom of Choice We in America have the right to be free, so why not listen to the words of Thomas Jefferson and build a â€Å"wall of separation between church and state?†Ã‚   The wall of separation was Jefferson’s interpretation of the first amendment; however, the idea was actually founder of Rhode Island Roger Williams’.   Jefferson’s belief was that religion was a personal relationship strictly between a man and his God and the government should notRead MoreThe Separation Of The State And Church1535 Words   |  7 PagesThe separation of the state and church refers to the distinct distance in the relationship that exists between the national state and the organized church. Although the aspect of separation between the state and the church has worked in a number of nations, the degree of separation varies depending on the valid legal policies and laws in relationship with the prevalence views on the religious aspect of the society. In most of the nations that practi ce such separation, there exists distinct rulesRead MoreCivil Liberties Essay1315 Words   |  6 PagesFrom the beginning, the United States Constitution has guaranteed the American people civil liberties. These liberties have given citizens rights to speak, believe, and act freely. The Constitution grants citizens the courage to express their mind about something they believe is immoral or unjust. The question is, how far are citizens willing to extend the meanings of these liberties? Some people believe that American citizens take advantage of their civil liberties, harming those around themRead MoreSeparation of Church and State, or Not? Essay1151 Words   |  5 PagesToday, people in America believe in the phrase â€Å"separation of church and state.† This has been the belief since trials in the 1960s when people started use a phrase â€Å"wall of separation of church and state† from a letter President Jefferson wrote. These trials took prayer out of public schools along with any textbook having biblical truth. Many people say that this phrase is backed up by the First Amendment. Before â€Å"separation of church and state† was believed by many, schools could use quotesRead MoreThomas Jefferson And The Declaration Of Independence1125 Words   |  5 Pagescompromising state of unrest, and it gave a perfect environment for the development of a new law. According to Thomas Jefferson’s input to the law of the country, this time may have been one of the important for him. In fact, its significance is much better than earlier times when he wrote the Declaration of Independence. In this period, he wrote arrays of new statutes and worked hard to ensure that they were enacted. Principally, there were three major areas that were much concern to him: Separation of the

Critique of a Nursing Research Article Free Essays

The abstract summarizers the chief characteristics of the study: job, methods, consequences, and. decision. The job was to place milk adequateness at yearss 6 and 7 to see if that was an index of what the milk supply would be at hebdomad 6 postpartum. We will write a custom essay sample on Critique of a Nursing Research Article or any similar topic only for you Order Now The method used was mechanical look to originate and keep milk supply for preterm bringings. The healthy full term bringings were to feed their baby at the chest and to make pre and postfeed weighs with each eating and to document consequences. Baseline milk end product was predicted as a†°? 500ml/d at hebdomad 6. Preterm bringings were at hazard of bring forthing deficient sums of milk. Study consequences indicated that that the intercessions used during the first hebdomad is critical. J Hum Lact.21 ( 1 ) :22-30 Introduction The job about milk production is easy identified. I do experience that a quantitative attack to this survey is appropriate and the information collected will assist nurses Carolyn Reagan p. 3 understand more about lactation and the demand for early intercessions to assist bring forth and keep a good milk supply. The article does non hold a subdivision titled background but this information is enclosed in an ignoble subdivision at the beginning of the article. Three surveies were referenced with the sample size being 9-73 participants. One survey referenced used multiparous Caucasic adult females merely. Study found that it was the map of the frequence and strength of suction by the baby. Study findings suggested that milk end product for a healthy term baby ranged from 600-900g/d. In one survey 733 i‚ ± 69 g/d in another survey through the first 4 months of life. In two other surveies preterm bringings were referenced were the female parents were pumping. The sample size was 9-12 participants. The volume yielded at 2 hebdomads was 2032.5 g/w ( SD = 1736.0 ) and 2513.2 ( SD = 1748.0 ) g/wk. Method The article includes a clearly identified trying subdivision. The research inquiries are easy identified. The eligibility standard was: non-smoking ; English or Spanish speech production female parents ; 18 old ages of age or older ; participants had to be able to be reached by telephone ; no history of Thyroid or Endocrine upsets ; non taking steroids or inhalators ; program to entirely breastfeed for 12 hebdomads or longer ; pre-term a†°Ã‚ ¤ 31 hebdomads gestation weighing 1500 gms or singleton, healthy, full term baby ( 37 hebdomads gestation ) weighing a†°? 2500 gm. Written consents signifiers had to be approved by the University of Illinois at Chicago and the four take parting third attention centre in the Midwest. The consents had to be signed by each female parent prior to take parting in the survey. Appropriate processs were used to Carolyn Reagan p. 4 safeguard the rights of the survey participants. The survey was designed to minimise hazards and to maximise benefits to the participants. The sample size was equal at 92 per group which was specified in the survey. The best possible trying design was used and sample prejudice was minimized. The hypothesis is non stated which is justifiable. The research inquiries are clearly identified. In the country of informations aggregation the female parents received samples and equipment necessary for the survey. Verbal and written instructions on survey protocols were provided and each female parent had to make a return presentation on how to piece the chest pump or how to utilize the baby graduated tables. They besides had to finish a questionnaire during survey entry refering to sociodemographic informations and old breastfeeding experience, every bit good as the day of the month and clip following bringing that chest stimulation via the pump or babe was initiated. For preterm bringings th e female parents were ask to pump chest at the same time for 10 proceedingss or until one chest is no longer dripping plus 2 more proceedingss. They needed to pump at least 8 times per twenty-four hours. Then document start clip of milk look ; Numberss of proceedingss pumped utilizing a stop watch ; and the sum of milk in millilitres expressed in to a unfertile bottle. The full term bringings were requested to make prefeed weights and postfeed weights. The female parent were instructed non to alter the babes nappies or vesture one time the prefeed weight was obtained until the postfeed weight was done. They were requested to nurse 8 to 12 times per twenty-four hours. They were instructed to maintain up with the sum consumed during each eating session. The cardinal variables were operational utilizing the best possible method. The information was collected in a mode that minimized prejudice. Appropriate statistical methods were Carolyn Reagan p.5 used, given the degree of measuring of the variables, and figure of groups being compared. Consequences â€Å" Descriptive statistics were used to depict the features of the full sample and the 2 gestation groups. SPSS, version 12.0 was used for analysis. XA? was used to prove differences for nominal variable with T trials for intervals with 2 groups and 1-way analysis of discrepancy for interval variables with more than 2 groups. Following review of the histograms and trials for normalcy, the square root transmutation was selected for the dependent milk volume variable when parametric statistics are reported ( Hill and Chatterson ) Same as below. â€Å" To exam the association between milk end product for the 2 gestation groups. Spearman p correlativity coefficients were generated. Repeated-measures analysis of discrepancy utilizing the general additive theoretical account was used to analyze average milk end product over clip for the 2 gestation groups. In add-on, GLM REPEATED was computed for each gestation group to depict and find the important tendency for the several group. ( Hill and Chatterson, Date ) . Is this a direct citation? Need close parentheses. The hazard of insufficiency was determined for each gestation group, and the comparative hazard with the 95 % assurance interval are reported. XA? is reported to prove differences of Carolyn Reagan p.6 preterm and term quintiles and hebdomad 6 milk production adequateness. A significance degree of P a†°Ã‚ ¤ .05 was accepted. ( Hill and Chatterson ) Analysiss were undertaken to turn to each research inquiry. Appropriate statistical methods were used, given the degree of i‚ ±measurement of the variables, and figure of groups being compared. The most powerful analytic method was used and it helped to command the confounding variables. Information about statistical significance, consequence size, and preciseness of estimations was presented. All the findings were adequately summarized, with good usage of tabular arraies and figures. Findingss were reported in a mode that facilitates a meta-analysis, and with sufficient information needed for Evidence Base Practice. Discussion This article suggests that during the first six hebdomads postpartum the variableness of milk end product automatically expressed by female parents of a nonnursing preterm baby was greater compared to the variableness in the sum of milk transferred at chest to the healthy term baby. In one prior survey with multiparae of term babies the milk supply increased quickly over the first 14 yearss. Full term bringings milk production can run from 523 to 1124 g/d and norm approximately 812 g/d at 3 months. In the present survey, term female parents at 6 hebdomads postpartum were bring forthing a mean of 663 i‚ ± 217.5 ml/d and preterm female parents 541 i‚ ± 460.0 wk/d. Some possible account could be supplementing with expression, breast milk volume is self-regulated by baby ‘s consumption, or residuary milk end product can be automatically expressed. Carolyn Reagan p.7 For female parents of preterm nonnursing baby, 3 surveies were found that mensural milk production in female parents who automatically express their milk. In one survey 2787 i‚ ± 1939 milliliter was reported. In two other surveies the average hebdomadal milk production volume were reported with great variableness in milk production for all survey hebdomads. There were no important differences in hebdomadal milk end product that was automatically expressed for hebdomads 2 through 6 postpartum. These surveies need to be cited. You give no mention for them. In this experimental survey for each gestation group, the hebdomadal milk end product was extremely correlated, the sum of milk produced at two hebdomads correlated with the sum of milk produced in the approaching hebdomads ; no intercessions were implemented to increase milk volume. The average milk end product at yearss 6 and 7 was associated with hebdomad 2 end product and reasonably associated with hebdomad 6. The findings suggest that early intercession my demand to happen during the first few yearss postpartum. By the 4th hebdomad full term female parents milk volume continued to increase while preterm female parent ‘s milk tended to diminish in volume. In this analysis 500 ml/day in a 24-hour period was used as a lower limit for milk adequateness. The recommendation for breastfeeding nonnursing female parents is to set up an abundant milk supply the first 7-10 yearss after bringing 750 to 1000 ml/d. The female parent ‘s milk supply could decrease and she would stil l be able to feed her baby. The preterm female parent has a 2.8 times more hazard for developing an unequal milk supply than do full term female parents. The mean at 6 – 7 yearss did predict whether a female parent of a term suckling baby or nonnursing preterm baby would accomplish milk adequateness at hebdomad 6 Carolyn Reagan p.8 postpartum. Study findings suggest that intercessions that promote an equal milk supply by the first hebdomad postpartum are critical. All Major findings are interpreted and discussed within the survey ‘s model. Interpretations are consistent with the consequences and the survey ‘s restrictions. The research workers discuss the deductions of the survey for clinical pattern and the deductions are sensible and complete. The study was written in a mode that makes the findings accessible to practising nurses. The research workers ‘ clinical makings and experiences enhance assurance in the findings and their reading. The survey does lend meaningful grounds that can be used in nursing pattern or that is utile to the nursing subject. How to cite Critique of a Nursing Research Article, Essay examples

Crime as a Socially Construct Altering out Understandings on the Caus

Question: Discuss about the Crime as a Socially Constructfor Altering out Understandings on the Causes. Answer: The Discovery of the Victim and a Shift in Focus from the Offender to the Offence: Altering our understandings of What Causes Crime Introduction Various ideological schools of thought and various societies define crime differently; these definitions are influenced by various factors such as law, moral precepts, social perceptions, political influence among others. There are various ways of analysing and interpreting crime, criminology is only one of them(Carrabine, et al., 2014). The purpose of this essay is to analyse the developments in the definition of crime and victimisations, guided by criminological ideologies. It will look into the classical and positivist schools of thought on the concept of crime and the definition of a criminal. Additionally, it will consider the emergence of the victim and how victimisation has developed in criminology. Furthermore, the essay will outline the strengths and weaknesses of the official and unofficial sources used to measure crime and victimisation; it is also important to consider the developments in the definitions of crime. This analysis will serve to conclude that crime is an ever -changing social construct. Changes to Our understandings of What Causes Crime Criminological Schools of Thought The theoretical foundation of criminology is built on two criminological ideologies; the classical school of thought arising in the eighteenth century and the positivist school of thought which emerged in the nineteenth century(Carrabine, et al., 2014). The classical ideology drew its principles from enlightenment thinking and posits that human beings possess free will and as such crime results from this choice. Ideally, punishment, imprisonment or surveillance and other preventative measures can be applied to deter the criminal from engaging in crime. Beccaria, in his attempt to humanise punishment, stated that the severity of punishment should coincide with the crime done and also guided by law. Essentially, crime was a choice which could be deterred by punishment; what constituted a crime and the subsequent punishment was determined by law(Beccaria, 1995). The positivist school of thought is usually associated with scholars like Lombroso and Ferri who approached criminology scientifically rather than on the basis of social ideologies. Lombroso, after conducting studies on various convicted criminals, identified a correlation between physical attributes and the tendency to commit a crime. As such, according to him, certain features; low foreheads, protruding ears, long arms, could be used as identifies for potential criminals. However, the challenge lies in the fact that these attributes can be found in non-criminals as well. Ferri expanded this philosophy by highlighting three components used to identify the causes of crime; anthropological, telluric and social(Mclaughlin, et al., 2003). The positivist school of thought has developed from these theories among others to present a more scientific approach to the causes of crime. Emergence of the Victim Traditionally, a victim was defined as an offer for sacrifice; the animal or person presented as a life sacrifice to appease a supernatural being(Karmen, 2015). However, this definition has since evolved to encompass those who suffer harm, injury or loss either from accidents, natural tragedies, illnesses or the illegal acts of others. Victimisation, the relationship that leads to one being a victim, is a growing concept; raping and theft causes victimisation, overcharging customers is also a form of victimisation, however, unlike the former, the latter is not an illegal act. Over time, the comprehension of the concept of victimisation and who is a victim has evolved as scholars move from subjectivity to a more objective approach. Traditionally, victimisation was analysed from a subjective viewpoint; influenced by morality, ethics, emotions, personal views and ideologies. As such, the victim in this approach is always the party who suffers the injury in question. This socially constructed ideology perceives a victim as one who is likely weaker than their attacker, virtuous and possibly a stranger to the oppressor who is stronger and driven by ill motive(Dignan, 2005). The challenge with this theory arises with the complexities brought about by real-life scenarios, for example where a targeted victim of a crime overpowers and possibly kills their attacker. Originally victims were presented as the good guys, however research shows that even criminals can fall victim, and are more likely to be victims, than innocent people. For example, prostitutes are likely victims of assault and battery, exploitation(Brents Hausbeck, 2005) and even murder by serial killers. Additionally, the perpetrators of a crime in police investigations may be acting in self-defence. As such, with the adoption of an objective approach, the understanding of victimisation has evolved and will continue to evolve. Measuring Crime and Victimisation Information on crime and victimisation can be derived from various official and unofficial sources; these include the media through, uniform statistics and reports, criminological research among others(Walklate, 2017). According to Soothill et al.(2002), these data sources can be categorised as direct experience of crime, mediated experience, official information and research knowledge(2002, p. 24). Statistics produced by prisons, governments or the police among other relevant authorities would serve as official data sources and are recognised as such the world over. Although these sources provide an official and reliable report, they are usually incomplete. This is because not all offences might be recognised as crimes in certain countries, additionally not all crimes are reported and finally not all reported crimes are recorded(Walklate, 2017). This inconsistency is referred as the dark figure of crime and as such, the interpretation of these data sources should be carried out with these shortcomings in mind. Criminal victimisation surveys and criminological research are another source of official data that attempt to bridge the gaps created by official statistics and reports. Self-report studies and other records, such as those compiled by businesses or newspapers; provide unofficial data on crime and victimisation. A self-report study entails engaging some members of the public in reporting whether or not they have committed crimes or have been victims of crimes. This method can be used, for example, to identify the percentage of youth engaged in criminal activity and the type of crimes they are likely to commit(Walklate, 2017). The weakness with these modes of data collection are that one cannot entirely qualify what would constitute a crime; circumstances might change had the issue been reported to the police. They, however, provide a good background to begin research into crime and victimisation statistics. Definitions of Crime According to Michael and Adler(1933), crime is simply any act prohibited by criminal statutes; this is the most commonly referred to definition of crime(Muncie, 2001). Sutherland and Cressey expanded this definition to illustrate what would be referred to as criminal law, whom it applies to and who enforces it(Sutherland Cressey, 1924/1970). This definition has been adopted by jurists and social scientists alike and from it, various criteria have been outlined in order to determine a crime; prohibition by law, criminal intent, voluntary act and a legally prescribed punishment. Over the years, crime has been defined in an array of concepts; as an infraction of moral rules, a social invention, a censure of ideals, a historical construct and as a social harm. As an infraction of moral principles and codes of conduct, what is considered as criminal today was at some point in time morally acceptable in society; there is no strict standard on crime(Wilkins, 1964). With this in mind, an act is not criminal by its own right, criminality is determined by what society at the time believes is wrong(Muncie, 2001). As such, it is not what is done but rather how society feels about it that determines what is a crime. Additionally, the definition of a crime can also be determined by political influence or power; those with the power to influence laws determine what will be considered as criminal in the society(Chambliss, 1975). As mentioned, the concept of crime has evolved with time; influenced by the perceptions of society and the ideologies of those with political influence and power. Historically, most of the behaviours termed as crimes today were simply undesirable acts governed by civil law and religion; crime is, therefore, an invention of his torical social perceptions. It is evident that crime, therefore, cannot be conclusively defined. This is because the definition is influenced by various factors which in themselves are subject to continuous change. Conclusion As illustrated in the discourse above, the concept of crime and victimisation has evolved greatly over the years. The classical school of thought attempted to define crime and the concept of the criminal based on free will; a criminal could choose whether to commit a crime or not. This school of thought was however overtaken by the positivist ideology that certain external and physical factors could contribute to crime. Additionally, the understanding of the victim has also changed over the years as scholars and investigators alike adopt a more objective approach to victimology. This analysis relies on official and unofficial sources of data; however, caution should be observed in the reliance of these sources as they are subject to various weaknesses. The concept of crime has evolved and will continue to evolve as it is a socially constructed phenomenon influenced by various factors such as social perceptions, laws and the political influences. Reference List Beccaria, C., 1995. Beccaria: On crimes and punishment and other writings. In: R. Bellamy, ed. 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